How do instant photographs work?

In order to answer the question of how exactly Polaroid cameras are able to take pictures and have them fully developed only moments later, some information on the structure of the film used in instant cameras is needed.

The Polaroid film itself consists of the same three light-sensitive layers used in conventional cameras, which are separated from each other by dye coupler layers. An image layer, along with a timing layer and an acid layer are placed on top of them. A black base layer forms the undermost layer of all of the other layers mentioned above. Probably the most important layer is the layer situated between the light-sensitive layer and the image layer, which contains a chemical called the re-agent. 
The re-agent is a mixture of opacifiers, which block light; alkali, necessary for neutralizing acids; and white pigments. The entire frame of the film is covered in a combination of these elements. The re-agent itself starts the chemical reaction taking place in Polaroid film.

The chemical processes start once the Polaroid camera pushes the film out, using rollers inside the camera. The re-agent is spread across the whole film, which starts a series of chemical reactions. The colors from the dye layers move up from the lower layers, the acid layer moves towards the top and the re-agent moves towards the lower layers. Another chemical reaction occurs once the re-agent and the acids meet. The alkali and the opacifier in the re-agent react with the acids to make the re-agent turn clear. Following this reaction the image starts to appear until the film is, at last, fully developed.

International Regulation of Cyber-Warfare

Several experts in cyber-security, cyber-intelligence, cyber-warfare and cyber-terrorism gathered in 2013 at an event entitled “International Regulation of Cyber-Warfare”. The fact that the current framework of international law is silent on the concept of cyber-warfare was criticized my many; demanding a regulation of cyber weapons.

The main question remains how exactly the law should be applied to cyber operations. Many referred to the “Tallinn Manual”, created by a group of experts on cyber security, as a possible option for how international law applies to cyberspace. In this manual, several factors that play an important role in classifying a happening in cyberspace as a cyber-attack are elaborated.

Several difficulties that could arise from applying international law to cyber warfare were equally discussed. As an example for this, the discrimination between civilians and combatants was mentioned as being problematic, as this would require that the attack be carried out against a specific group of IP addresses. The requirement of combatants wearing a fixed distinctive sign recognizable at a distance would equally be difficult to meet.

Even so, cyber war now poses a real threat to national security with rising number of cyber-attacks carried out by an increasing variety of actors, including hackers, spies, companies and states.

The experts then discussed the definition of cyber weapons in order to create the possibility of applying international law to their use. They mentioned that cyber weapons must be deployed within the context f a cyber-warfare act, that the purpose of the cyber-attack must be a physical destruction or damage caused directly or indirectly and that the means to achieve this outcome have to involve technological information systems. A cyber weapon is therefore a device of computer instructions used in a conflict between national or non-national actors, with the purpose of causing physical damage to people or equipment.

Even though the event continued with mentions of legal and non-legal nature, underlining the interest of the participants in a regulation of cyber weapons, no decision on how law could be applied was made.

 http://isiseurope.wordpress.com/2013/11/06/international-regulation-of-cyber-warfare/

NEW CAJ: Cyberwar Abstract

The purpose of this CAJ is to provide information on the topic of cyberwar that has become a general topic of discussion recently and about  a potential threat to the future of human beings. In the following blog posts, famous cyber threats will be covered, but the difficulties in defining recent cyberattacks as cyberwar and the probability of the future outbreak of a cyberwar will equally be discussed. Several scientific journals as well as websites dedicated to cyber security and to technology in general, just as TED talks on topics related to cyberwar, served as the sources of information of this CAJ. The research conducted on the topic of cyberwar concluded that greatest difficulty in defining cyberwar is the fact that it is hard to track cyberattacks back to their source and that series of cyberattacks can only be considered an act of war if a nation leads its operation. This further leads to the assumption that the outbreak of a cyberwar is highly unlikely. To further research cyberwar, the different forms of cyberattacks that could be used in cyberwar will be presented and theories about the potential risk of a cyberwar outbreak will be elaborated.

ABSTRACT: “WHEN ZOMBIES ATTACK: MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF AN OUTBREAK OF ZOMBIE INFECTION”

ABSTRACT: “WHEN ZOMBIES ATTACK: MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF AN OUTBREAK OF ZOMBIE INFECTION”

The purpose of the article is to demonstrate the flexibility of mathematical models and to prove that modelling can respond to a variety of biological challenges, including outbreaks of zombie infection. To prove this, five mathematical models were taken into consideration. The timescale in each of these models was short, so that the birth and death rates of humans could not influence the outcome of the equations. In addition to that, only humans were considered susceptible to zombie infection in all five models. The first three models conclude with the fact that a coexistence between humans and zombies is impossible, as this will eventually lead to the eradication of humans. According to the fourth model, in which the existence of a cure for zombiism is taken into consideration, humans would be able to survive in low numbers. Only the fifth model, which includes the factor of an impulsive eradication of zombies, would allow humans to survive the outbreak relatively undamaged. Though the scenario of a zombie outbreak is unrealistic, these findings can in real life be applied to examine the allegiance to political parties or diseases with dormant infection.

How to Go Back in Time and Prevent Another Time Traveller from Killing Hitler

How to Go Back In Time and Prevent Another Time Traveller from Killing Hitler

Things you need:

• Intention to protect Hitler
• Nerves to not kill Hitler
• Time machine (and working knowledge)
• Baseball Bat
• article “Time Travellers: Please don’t kill Hitler” by Dean Burnett

ATTENTION

Depending on the period of time you choose to meet Hitler in, you will have to act and react differently.

1. Turn your machine on and step inside.
2. If you chose to meet Hitler as a child, continue reading. If you chose to meet Hitler as an adult, go straight to step 16.
3. Choose a period of time between 1895 and 1899 and type it into the board computer of your time machine.
4. When the machine asks you about your destination of time travel, type “Fischlham Volksschule” into the computer system.
5. Once you arrive at school, search for a boy named Adolf Hitler (or Hiedler, Huettler or Hüttler).
6. Engage him in a conversation and act like you two have a lot of things in common.
7. Make him trust you completely (you are now his ultimate best friend forever).
8. When Hitler becomes the leader of the third Reich, stick with him at all times.
9. Avoid to sleep, eat and preferably also to go to the toilet in order to stay with him at all times.
10. Wait for time travellers to come and prepare a baseball bat for the event of an attack on Hitler.
11. When time travellers arrive, knock them out with your baseball bat and tie them to a chair.
12. Wait for them to wake up and explain that behind the facade of being a cold-hearted bastard, Hitler is indeed a nice person and a good friend. If they believe you go to step 13, if not, go to step 14.
13. Free them and send them back to the future. Skip step 14.
14. Get rid of them.
15. Faint from exhaustion or from starvation.

YOU JUST SUCCEEDED IN PREVENTING TIME TRAVELLERS FROM KILLING HITLER: Congratulations

16. Put a copy of the article “Time Travellers: Please don’t kill Hitler” by Dean Burnett in one of the pockets of your jacket.
17. Choose a period of time shortly before 1933 to join Hitler as one of his generals before he becomes the leader of Germany.
18. When you arrive in Germany, join Hitler’s Nazi party.
19. Become close with him by telling him that he will soon be the chancellor of Germany.
20. When he becomes the chancellor of Germany, tell him that once Hindenburg dies, he can be the sole ruler of Germany. Once this happens you have succeeded in making him trust you.
21. As one of Hitler’s generals, position hundreds of security guards around his workplace, house and send at least a dozen of them to accompany him at all times.
22. Stay on lookout for weirdly-dressed people appearing out of nowhere.
23. As soon as one of those people (time travellers) appear, hand them the copy of the article “Time Travellers: Please don’t kill Hitler”. If they decide not to kill Hitler, go to step 24; if they insist on killing Hitler go to step 25.
24. Tell them that you to do not like Hitler, but that the future could change too dramatically for humans if anybody killed him. Skip step 25.
25. Threaten the time travellers that their smartphones will probably disappear in the future if they really do succeed in killing him (this will change their minds).

YOU JUST SUCCEEDED IN PREVENTING TIME TRAVELLERS FROM KILLING HITLER: Congratulations

CAJ: Cyberwar Abstract

The purpose of my CAJ is for me to learn more about cyberwar and about  a potential threat to the future of human beings. In my CAJ I will not only try to cover famous cyber threats, but also the difficulties in defining recent cyberattacks as cyberwar and the probability of the future outbreak of a cyberwar. For getting more information on those topics, I read a lot about cyberwar in various scientific journals as well as on websites dedicated to cyber security and to technology in general, but I equally listened to TED talks on topics related to cyberwar. What I figured out so far is that a big difficulty in defining cyberwar is the fact that it is hard to track cyberattacks back to its source and that series of cyberattacks can only be considered an act of war if a nation is behind its operation. This further leads to the assumption that the outbreak of a cyberwar is highly unlikely. To further research these topics, I will attempt to find out more about the different forms of cyberattacks that could be used in cyberwar. I will equally try to research theories about the potential risk of a cyberwar outbreak.

Group/Instructional: How to build a camera lucida

Rating the instructions of ‘How to make a camera lucida'

Though the instructions on “how to make a camera lucida” are not completely useless, there are several aspects of the instruction that could be improved. One of the aspects that proves that the instructions are insufficient is the fact that they rely heavily on the use of images. In fact, they rely on pictures to the point that the instructions become incomprehensible once they are removed from the text.

The text that accompanies the images does not give any precise instructions and is, for several reasons, confusing. One of those reasons is that it lacks a clear chronological order. This can confuse those people who have never seen or constructed a camera lucida before and therefore do not know about the logical order of the steps taken to build one.

Another problem is that no hints or warnings are mentioned, which could prevent accidents and ensure a successful construction of the camera lucida. Just as serious as the lack of hints and warnings, is the fact that it does not include a list of what materials should be used. Many readers might, for example, choose a piece of clear plastic unfit for the use in a camera lucida and therefore not achieve the expected outcome.

The fact that the title does not even hint at the fact that the text includes both, the instructions on how to build a camera lucida, but also how to use it, could lead to more misunderstandings. Equally, the text should be divided into separate parts for the construction of a camera lucida and its use for drawing.

If the text were to be adjusted in the points mentioned above, the instructions could easily be rendered comprehensible and useful to its readers.

Death Penalty for Hackers who engage in Cyberwar

After talking about the involvement of hackers in cyberwar, I guess it is quite important to mention what exactely could happen to hackers who involve in cyberwarfare. Well, up to now hackers have been charged with lengthy prison sentences in the U.S, but it seems that they could soon face even harsher penalties, to be more precise: death.

According to a group of military law experts, NATO should have the right and legal justification to use military force against hackers who help other countries launch cyberattacks on the U.S. Even though currently international law prohibits attacks on civilians, even in wartime, the report published by those military experts, called Talinn Manual, advises NATO to drop the legal protection of hackers who help another country sabotage the U.S' computer networks. This report therefore creates the first outline of a set of rules to follow in the event of a cyberwar.

To justify the attack on a civilian, even if he is a hacker betraying his own country, the target would have to pose a serious national security threat. His attack would likewise have to threaten the life and health of other civilians.

Even though the Tallinn Manual depicts what should happen to a hacker in the event of a cyberwar, the report does not answer the question of how to trace a cyberattack back to the attacker. Most hackers use a technique known as “spoofing”, in which they route their attacks through computers around the world, to cover their virtual traces. Another problem of the Tallinn Manual is the fact, that it does not clearly define when a hacker becomes a national threat and loses his their national protection.

While some experts agree that the U.S military should have the right to use physical force against hackers who attempted to threaten their country's population, others are troubled by the report and mentioned that it did not reflect the views of NATO countries.

There has not yet been a decision on whether or not the Tallinn Manual would come into force. Another strategy, the Pentagon's first formal cyber strategy that concluded that cyberattacks from another country could be considered an act of war and merited a lethal response, was released in 2011.

 

My CAJ Topic in General Terms: Cyberwar

My CAJ topic in general terms

My CAJ topic of choice this semester is cyberwar and even though it is quite easy to define this topic, it is quite tricky to find reliable information on cyberwar on the internet, as, according to several science magazines and newspaper articles, there has not yet been a cyberattack that could be considered an act of war.

Generally cyberwar can be defined as a solely Internet-based conflict that takes place through electronic and not physical means. The means of a cyberwar are, of course, cyberattacks which do not only have the power to  disable websites and networks, but they can also disrupt important services, steal classified data or alter data and cripple entire financial systems. Recent developments in robotics, which led to the creation of unmanned vehicles or drones, would even allow cyberattacks of even greater scale if hackers succeed in infesting the sophisticated computer system of those drones.

Furthermore, it is important to know that in order to define cyberattacks as an act of war, it is essential that a government or state admits having played a role in those attacks. As this has, up to this point, never happened in history and as it is extremely difficult to trace cyberattacks back to its source, we cannot yet speak of the outbreak of a cyberwar.

When we talk about cyberwar, it is, however, indispensable to include the topics of cyber security and cyber technology, as both of them are inextricably linked to cyberattacks and therefore to cyberwar in general. 

The role timing plays in cyberwar

http://www.nature.com/news/the-best-time-to-wage-cyberwar-1.14502

An important question when it comes to cyberwar is the question of timing. Should the hacker launch a cyberattack right at the moment he succeeds to enter the target’s computer or should he wait for an even better opportunity to attack? The problem in waiting too long is that the target could become aware of the intruder and fix the vulnerabilities in his computer system.

A new mathematical model that allows users to calculate the ideal timing of a surprise cyberattack has already been invented. An example for this is the Stuxnet worm, which infected an Iranian nuclear enrichment plant and went unnoticed for almost one and a half years. For Stuxnet a immediate attack was not the more rational approach.

If we compare cyberwar to convential warfare then a nation should wait patiently for the right occasion to use cyberweaponry. Terrorists, however, might think quite differently as this and just want to cause as much damage as possible at a random point of time. If the attackers are quite sure that the vulnerabilities in a security system are unlikely to be discovered and patched any time soon, then it would be quite reasonable for them to save their cyberweapons for a high-stake situation. At other times a zero-day cyberattack, in which the target has zero days to prepare for the attack, might be preferable. Stuxnet, for example which relied in four computer vulnerabilities being open at the same time, had to be dispatched as soon as possible.

The important question is whether the use of offensive cyber technology is productive or not.